|
Second-wave feminism is a period of feminist activity that first began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually spread throughout the Western world and beyond. In the United States the movement lasted through the early 1980s.〔Sarah Gamble, ed. ''The Routledge companion to feminism and postfeminism'' (2001) p. 25〕 It later became a worldwide movement that was strong in Europe and parts of Asia, such as Turkey〔Badran, Margot, ''Feminism in Islam: Secular and Religious Convergences'' (Oxford, Eng.: Oneworld, 2009) p. 227〕 and Israel, where it began in the 1980s, and it began at other times in other countries.〔Freedman, Marcia, ''Theorizing Israeli Feminism, 1970–2000'', in Misra, Kalpana, & Melanie S. Rich, ''Jewish Feminism in Israel: Some Contemporary Perspectives'' (Hanover, N.H.: Univ. Press of New England (Brandeis Univ. Press) 2003) pp. 9–10〕 Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on suffrage and overturning legal obstacles to gender equality (''i.e.'', voting rights, property rights), second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=women's movement (political and social movement) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia )〕 At a time when mainstream women were making job gains in the professions, the military, the media, and sports in large part because of second-wave feminist advocacy, second-wave feminism also drew attention to domestic violence and marital rape issues, establishment of rape crisis and battered women's shelters, and changes in custody and divorce law. Its major effort was the attempted passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the United States Constitution, in which they were defeated by anti-feminists led by Phyllis Schlafly, who argued as an anti-ERA view that the ERA meant women would be drafted into the military. Many historians view the second-wave feminist era in America as ending in the early 1980s with the intra-feminism disputes of the feminist sex wars over issues such as sexuality and pornography, which ushered in the era of third-wave feminism in the early 1990s. ==Overview== The second wave of feminism in North America came as a delayed reaction against the renewed domesticity of women after World War II: the late 1940s post-war boom, which was an era characterized by an unprecedented economic growth, a baby boom, a move to family-oriented suburbs, and the ideal of companionate marriages. This life was clearly illustrated by the media of the time; for example television shows such as ''Father Knows Best'' and ''Leave It to Beaver'' idealized domesticity.〔Murray Knuttila, ''Introducing Sociology: A Critical Approach'' (4th ed. 2008 Oxford University Press)〕 Before the second wave there were some important events which laid the groundwork for it. French writer Simone de Beauvoir had in the 1940s examined the notion of women being perceived as "other" in the patriarchal society. She went on to conclude that male-centered ideology was being accepted as a norm and enforced by the ongoing development of myths, and that the fact that women are capable of getting pregnant, lactating, and menstruating is in no way a valid cause or explanation to place them as the "second sex".〔Simone de Beauvoir, ''The Second Sex'', 1949.〕 This book was translated from French to English (with some of its text excised) and published in America in 1953.〔Moi, Toril, 'While we wait: The English translation of The Second Sex' in Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society vol. 27, no 4 (2002), pp. 1005–1035〕 In 1960 the Food and Drug Administration approved the combined oral contraceptive pill, which was made available in 1961.〔Tone, Andrea (2001). Devices & Desires: A History of Contraceptives in America. New York: Hill and Wang.〕 This made it easier for women to have careers without having to leave due to unexpectedly becoming pregnant. The administration of President Kennedy made women's rights a key issue of the New Frontier, and named women (such as Esther Peterson) to many high-ranking posts in his administration.〔()〕 Kennedy also established a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt and comprising cabinet officials (including Peterson and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy), senators, representatives, businesspeople, psychologists, sociologists, professors, activists, and public servants. There were also notable actions by women in wider society, presaging their wider engagement in politics which would come with the second wave. In 1961, 50,000 women in 60 cities, mobilized by Women Strike for Peace, protested above ground testing of nuclear bombs and tainted milk. In 1963 Betty Friedan, influenced by ''The Second Sex'', wrote the bestselling book ''The Feminine Mystique''. Discussing primarily white women, she explicitly objected to how women were depicted in the mainstream media, and how placing them at home limited their possibilities and wasted potential. Friedan described this as "The Problem That Has No Name".〔DuBois and Dumenil. ''Through Women's Eyes: An American History Since 1865''. (Bedford; St Martin's,New York)〕 The perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women.〔Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs. 1988. ''Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender, and the Social Order''. New Haven: Yale University Press〕 This book is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism. Though it is widely accepted that the movement lasted from the 1960s into the early 1980s, the exact years of the movement are more difficult to pinpoint and are often disputed. The movement is usually believed to have begun in 1963, when "Mother of the Movement" Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, and President John F. Kennedy's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women released its report on gender inequality. The report, which revealed great discrimination against women in American life, along with Friedan's book, which spoke to the discontent of many women (especially housewives), led to the formation of many local, state, and federal government women's groups as well as many independent feminist organizations. Friedan was referencing a "movement" as early as 1964. The movement grew with legal victories such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the ''Griswold v. Connecticut'' Supreme Court ruling of 1965. In 1966 Friedan joined other women and men to found the National Organization for Women (NOW); Friedan would be named as the organization's first president. Despite the early successes NOW achieved under Friedan's leadership, her decision to pressure the Equal Employment Opportunity to use Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act to enforce more job opportunities among American women met with fierce opposition within the organization.〔 Siding with arguments among several of the group's African-American members,〔 many of NOW's leaders were convinced that the vast number of male African-Americans who lived below the poverty line were in need of more job opportunities than women within the middle and upper class. Friedan stepped down as president in 1969.〔(NOW statement on Friedan's death )〕 In 1963, freelance journalist Gloria Steinem gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a Playboy Bunny waitress at the Playboy Club was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of ''Show''. In her diary, Steinem alleged the club was mistreating its waitresses in order to gain male customers and exploited the Playboy Bunnies as symbols of male chauvinism, noting that the club's manual instructed the Bunnies that "there are many pleasing ways they can employ to stimulate the club's liquor volume."〔 By 1968, Steinem had become arguably the most influential figure in the movement and support for legalized abortion and federally funded day-cares had become the two leading objectives for feminists. Amongst the most significant legal victories of the movement after the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full affirmative action rights to women, a 1968 EEOC decision ruling illegal sex-segregated help wanted ads, Title IX and the Women's Educational Equity Act (1972 and 1974, respectively, educational equality), Title X (1970, health and family planning), the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974), the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, the outlawing of marital rape (although not outlawed in all states until 1993 〔(Refuge House Resources - Marital Rape )〕), and the legalization of no-fault divorce (although not legalized in all states until 2010 〔(NY becomes 50th state with no-fault divorce - Newsday )〕), a 1975 law requiring the U.S. Military Academies to admit women, and many Supreme Court cases, perhaps most notably ''Reed v. Reed'' of 1971 and ''Roe v. Wade'' of 1973. However, the changing of social attitudes towards women is usually considered the greatest success of the women's movement. In January 2013, US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta announced that the longtime ban on women serving in US military combat roles had been lifted.〔 The US Department of Defense plans to integrate women into all combat positions by 2016.〔(A History of Women in the U.S. Military ) Accessed December 28, 2013〕 Second-wave feminism also affected other movements, such as the civil rights movement and the student's rights movement, as women sought equality within them. In 1965 Casey Hayden and Mary King published "Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo"〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo )〕 detailing women's inequality within the civil rights organization SNCC.〔(Dear Sisters: Dispatches From The Women's Liberation Movement - Rosalyn Fraad Baxandall, Rosalyn Baxandall, Linda Gordon - Google Books )〕 In June 1967 Jo Freeman attended a "free school'" course on women at the University of Chicago led by Heather Booth 〔(Heather Booth | Jewish Women's Archive )〕 and Naomi Weisstein. She invited them to organize a woman's workshop at the then-forthcoming National Conference of New Politics (NCNP), to be held over Labor Day weekend 1967 in Chicago. At that conference a woman's caucus was formed, and it (led by Freeman and Shulamith Firestone) tried to present its own demands to the plenary session.〔(American Patriotism, American Protest: Social Movements Since the Sixties - Simon Hall - Google Books )〕 However, the women were told their resolution was not important enough for a floor discussion, and when through threatening to tie up the convention with procedural motions they succeeded in having their statement tacked to the end of the agenda, it was never discussed.〔(On the Origins of Social Movements )〕 When the National Conference for New Politics Director Willam F. Pepper refused to recognize any of the women waiting to speak and instead called on someone to speak about the American Indian, five women, including Firestone, rushed the podium to demand to know why.〔 But Willam F. Pepper patted Firestone on the head and said, "Move on little girl; we have more important issues to talk about here than women's liberation", or possibly, "Cool down, little girl. We have more important things to talk about than women's problems."〔〔 Freeman and Firestone called a meeting of the women who had been at the "free school" course and the women's workshop at the conference; this became the first Chicago women's liberation group. It was known as the Westside group because it met weekly in Freeman's apartment on Chicago's west side. After a few months Freeman started a newsletter which she called ''Voice of the women's liberation movement.'' It circulated all over the country (and in a few foreign countries), giving the new movement of women's liberation its name. Many of the women in the Westside group went on to start other feminist organizations, including the Chicago Women's Liberation Union. In 1968, an SDS organizer at the University of Washington told a meeting about white college men working with poor white men, and "()e noted that sometimes after analyzing societal ills, the men shared leisure time by 'balling a chick together.' He pointed out that such activities did much to enhance the political consciousness of poor white youth. A woman in the audience asked, 'And what did it do for the consciousness of the chick?'" (Hole, Judith, and Ellen Levine, ''Rebirth of Feminism'', 1971, pg. 120).〔 After the meeting, a handful of women formed Seattle's first women's liberation group.〔 By the early 1980s, it was largely perceived that women had met their goals and succeeded in changing social attitudes towards gender roles, repealing oppressive laws that were based on sex, integrating the "boys' clubs" such as Military academies, the United States armed forces, NASA, single-sex colleges, men's clubs, and the Supreme Court, and illegalizing gender discrimination. However, in 1982 adding the Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution failed, having been ratified by only 35 states, leaving it three states short of ratification. Second-wave feminism was largely successful, with the failure of the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment and Nixon's veto of the Comprehensive Child Development Bill of 1972 (which would have provided a multibillion-dollar national day care system) the only major legislative defeats. Efforts to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment have continued. Ten states have adopted constitutions or constitutional amendments providing that equal rights under the law shall not be denied because of sex, and most of these provisions mirror the broad language of the Equal Rights Amendment. Furthermore, many women's groups are still active and are major political forces. , more women earn bachelor's degrees than men,〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Demographics of Working Moms )〕 half of the Ivy League presidents are women, the numbers of women in government and traditionally male-dominated fields have dramatically increased, and in 2009 the percentage of women in the American workforce temporarily surpassed that of men. The salary of the average American woman has also increased over time, although as of 2008 it is only 77% of the average man's salary, a phenomenon often referred to as the Gender Pay Gap. Whether this is due to discrimination is very hotly disputed, however economists and sociologists have provided evidence to that effect.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Office of the White House, Council of Economic Advisors, 1998, IV. Discrimination )〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Levine, Report for Congress, "The Gender Gap and Pay Equity: Is Comparable Worth the Next Step?", Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 2003 )〕 Second-wave feminism in the U.S. coincided in the early 1980s with the feminist sex wars and was overlapped by third wave feminism in the early 1990s. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Second-wave feminism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|